A Wall Street Journal Article Related to Macroeconomics

The chosen article from Wall Street Journal newspaper which is related to macroeconomics is â€Å"M&A Milestone: $101 Billion Deal For ABN Amro Group Set to Dismember 183-Year-Old Bank; Will Buyers Regret It? † by Jason Singer and Carrick Mollenkamp in October 2007. As a brief summary of the article, the largest banking transaction is expected to settle at present, consequential of the unattachment of one of Europe's leading depositories. The impact of the transaction extends ahead of its $101 billion charge and the termination of 183-year-old ABN Amro Holding NV of the Netherlands (Singer & Mollenkamp, 2007).Conditional on how the customers fee, it may possibly turn out to be either an indication of the enthusiasm exuberance observed in the current unions and possessions growth or as several assets bankers anticipate as a guide for dealing with disintegration of great corporations. A three- system association headed by Royal Bank of Scotland Group PLC is projected these days to gain adequate assistance from ABN Amro shareholders to complete the agreement. ABN Amro is determined to come apart officially into three portions, with one part intended for every purchaser.A lesser proposal from Barclays Group PLC ended on the recent past, and the public who are accustomed with the circumstances stated that it dropped short. In a memorandum to workers, ABN Amro Chief Executive Rijkman Groenink declared that the acquisition by the RBS-directed group might go out of business in October. The credit risk involved in Barclays bank is treated as the possibility that a reserve loaner will not succeed to meet its responsibilities compliant with the settled conditions (George, 2002).By setting up a suitable credit risk background, it is meant that the approach should consist of a declaration of the bank’s determination to grant credit on category, economic part, geographical place, legal tender, maturity and projected turnover. The approach may as well comprise m onetary objectives of credit attribute, revenues and progress. The actual procedures of the banks can be seen in running credit risks in every item and involving the latest items to sufficient measures before being presented and accepted by the board of administrators.The implications as to how the topic of concern relates to macroeconomic theory are the following. Since multinational companies are involved in the article and they engage in creating transactions to one another, the article involves imports and exports in the process. Foreign trade is at hand. There are international economic policies where charges on import and exports are present, which is in the article are transactions. The role of fiscal policy is also involved wherein there is an imposition of levies which inevitably affects income.The dues decrease disposable income, consumption of purchasers, demand for good, and national output. Quotas of firms from the different banks from various countries can also be visi ble, with inflation rate and Consumer Price Index (CPI) change. In the national income accounts, there is an interaction between the business firms such as the banks and the households or the general public. With this kind of interaction of business firms with households, services are traded. The expenditure approach is in consumption expenditure while the factors of production and factor payments are included in the resource market using the income approach.With the topic of aggregate demand and output of the transacting firms in different countries, the business cycle in macroeconomics becomes apparent with the regular pattern of contraction (recession) and expansion (recovery) is around a trend path of output or growth. The trend path entails if the factors of production or resources are fully employed. The banks measures to distinguish circumstances by which, in contemplating bids, it is apt to categorize a cluster of obligors as linked counterparties and, accordingly, as a sole obligor.This takes account of combining exposures to sets of records revealing monetary interdependence, where they are under general possession or with strong associations. This has a connection with the concept of assets market with the LM equilibrium schedule. It is composed of real assets such as properties and financial assets such as money and bonds. As worldwide issues come at hand, dwindling administration bond markets and mounting commercial bond release of banks are promoting better study into educated management on threat or return proportions.Due to budget constraint, wherein demand equals financial wealth, a lot of banks partake in credit consortia and some organizations set unnecessary dependence on the loan stake study completed by the chief sponsor or on outside business credit evaluation. Each consortium members executes their individual conscientiousness, as well as sovereign loan risk assessment and consortium stipulations analysis before binding to the group. Ev ery bank like Barclays investigates the risk and reimbursement on consortium credits in the similar way as precisely sourced credits.Rapid market adjustments are also occurring by which money market makes easier production. A principle for the credit risk administration affirms that banks must work in positive and distinct credit endowment standards. This principle involves an apparent suggestion of the bank’s direct market. In view of latent bids, the various banks identify the need of creating stipulations for known and probable deficits and maintaining enough capital to take in the unpredicted deficiencies.It also considers these factors into bid endowment choices, in addition to the general portfolio risk administration procedure. Reference: Jason Singer and Carrick Mollenkamp (2007). M&A Milestone: $101 Billion Deal For ABN Amro Group Set to Dismember 183-Year-Old Bank; Will Buyers Regret It? Wall Street Journal newspaper, October 5, 2007, Page A1. Retrieved October 5, 2 007, from http://online. wsj. com/article/SB119154087347749578. html? mod=todays_europe_nonsu _money_and_investing.

American Novelists and Motherly Speaker Figure Essay

And today in the wide world of Literature, well maybe just short stories, we will be going over Rick Moody’s â€Å"Boys† and Jamaica Kincaid’s â€Å"Girl† and discerning the way in which Moody chose to make his story very quick paced to the reader and in a way difficult to read, but with a purpose. Also how that affects the way the reader may read, perceive, or understand the story in a different way. And comparing how the similar writing style of Kincaid compares to Moody’s use. In â€Å"Boys† we are immediately introduced to a recurring theme, event, or phrase, if you will, that pops up throughout the story many, many times. â€Å"Boys enter the house, boys enter the house† (Moody 579). Moody starts his story off with an action already taking place, he chooses not to setup a scene for the reader to immerse his or herself into. We are immediately drawn into the story on what seems to be a roller coaster ride of events and emotions through the years of the boys’ lives. He accomplishes this rushed, almost crazed reading by writing very quick short sentences all in one paragraph, literally making it very difficult for the reader to take their eyes away without losing their place and thus missing out on the action. In â€Å"Girl† the motherly speaker figure rapidly lists things a proper woman of their society should do, such as how to clean and cook. The list goes on and on and has a theme related to what must be done as a grown-up essentially that also gives this sense of following the steps taken over time growing up to be a better person. This quick pace in which the stories progress is similar to Susan Minot’s â€Å"Lust† in that each story told different excerpts from the speakers’ lives that helped mark the growth of the speakers as the stories progressed.

A Survey on Fingerprint Mathing Algorithms

A Survey on Fingerprint Mathing Algorithms In this networked world, users store their significant and less significant data over internet (cloud). Once data is ported to public Internet, security issues pop-up. To address the security issues, the present day technologies include traditional user-id and password mechanism and a onetime password (two-factor authentication). In addition to that, using the inexpensive scanners built into smartphones, fingerprint authentication is incorporated for improved security for data communication between the cloud user and the cloud provider. The age old image processing technique is revisited for processing the fingerprint of the user and matching against the stored images with the central cloud server during the initial registration process. In this paper, various fingerprint matching algorithms are studied and analyzed. Two important areas are addressed in fingerprint matching process: fingerprint verification fingerprint identification. The former compares two fingerprint and says they are similar or not; while the latter searches a database to identify the fingerprint image which is fed in by the user. Based on the survey on different matching algorithms, a novel method is proposed. Keywords: image processing, biometrics, fingerprint matching, cloud, security Introduction Automated fingerprint recognition systems have been deployed in a wide variety of application domains ranging from forensics to mobile phones. Designing algorithms for extracting salient features from fingerprints and matching them is still a challenging and important pattern recognition problem. This is due to the large intra-class variability and large inter-class similarity in fingerprint patterns. The factors responsible for intra-class variations are a) displacement or rotation between different acquisitions; b) partial overlap, especially in sensors of small area; c) non linear distortion, due to skin plasticity and differences in pressure against the sensor; d) pressure and skin condition, due to permanent or temporary factors (cuts, dirt, humidity, etc.); e) noise in the sensor (for example, residues from previous acquisitions); f) feature extraction errors. Fingerprint identification system may be either a verification system or an identification system depending on the context of the application. A verification system authenticates a person’s identity by comparing the captured fingerprint with her/his previously enrolled fingerprint reference template. An identification system recognizes an individual by searching the entire enrolment template database for a match. The fingerprint feature extraction and matching algorithms are usually quite similar for both fingerprint verification and identification problems. Fingerprint – Identification and Verification using Minutiae Based Matching Algorithms Fingerprints are commonly used to identify an individual. Research also suggests that fingerprints may provide information about future diseases an individual may be at risk for developing. Fingerprints are graphical flow-like ridges in palm of a human. Fingerprint is captured digitally using a fingerprint scanner. Fingerprints are commonly used to identify an individual. Research also suggests that fingerprints may provide information about future diseases an individual may be at risk for developing. Fingerprints are graphical flow-like ridges in palm of a human, that are unique amongst human beings. The hardware, fingerprint scanners are becoming low cost devices. The two most important ridge characteristics are ridge ending and ridge bifurcation. Automatic fingerprint identification systems (AFIS) have been widely used. An AFIS consists of two phases: offline and online. In the off-line phase, a fingerprint is acquired, enhanced using different algorithms, where features of the fingerprint are extracted and stored in a database as a template. In the on-line phase, a fingerprint is acquired, enhanced and features of the fingerprint are extracted, fed to a matching model and matched against template models in the database as depicted in the figure 1. Among all the biometric techniques, fingerprint-based identification is the most common used method which has been successfully used in numerous applications. Comparing to other biometric techniques, the advantages of fingerprint-based identification are as detailed below: The minutiae details of individual ridges and furrows are permanent and unchanging. The fingerprint is easily captured using low cost fingerprint scanner. Fingerprint is unique for every person. So it can be used to form multiple passwords to improve the security of the systems. Flow of Diagram representing the Fingerprint Identification The above figure clearly explains the simple methodology of fingerprint verification. In off-line process, the fingerprint of all users are captured and stored in a database. Before storing the raw or original image, the image is enhanced. The fingerprint image when captured for the first time may contain unwanted data ie noise. Because our hands being the most used part of our body may contain wetness, dry, oily or grease; and these images may be treated as noise while capturing the original fingerprint. And hence, to remove the noise, image enhancement techniques like adaptive filtering and adaptive thresholding. Original Fingerprint Image. The standard form factor for the image size is 0.5 to 1.25 inches square and 500 dots per inch. In the above original image, the process of adaptive filtering and thresholding are carried out. The redundancy of parallel ridges is a useful characteristic in image enhancement process. Though there may be discontinuities in a particular ridge, we can determine the flow by applying adaptive, matched filter. This filter is applied to every pixel in the image and the incorrect ridges are removed by applying matched filter. Thereby, the noise is removed and the enhanced image is shown in figure 3. Enhanced Fingerprint Image The enhanced image undergoes feature extraction process wherein: binarization and thinning take place. All fingerprint images do not share same contrast properties as the force applied while pressing may vary for each instance. Hence, the contrast variation is removed by this binarization process using local adaptive thresholding. Thinning is a feature extraction process where the width of the ridges is reduced down to a single pixel. The resultant feature extraction is shown below figure 4. Feature Extraction After Binarization and Thinning The process of minutiae extraction is done as the last step in feature extraction and then the final image is stored in database. Operating upon the thinned image, the minutiae are straightforward to detect and the endings are found at the termination points of thin lines. Bifurcations are found at the junctions of three lines. Feature attributes are determined for each valid minutia found. These consist of: ridge ending, the (x,y) location, and the direction of the ending bifurcation. Although minutia type is usually determined and stored, many fingerprint matching systems do not use this information because discrimination of one from the other is often difficult. The result of the feature extraction stage is what is called a minutia template, as shown in figure 5. This is a list of minutiae with accompanying attribute values. An approximate range on the number of minutiae found at this stage is from 10 to 100. If each minutia is stored with type (1 bit), location (9 bits each for x and y), and direction (8 bits), then each will require 27 bits say 4 bytes and the template will require up to 400 bytes. It is not uncommon to see template lengths of 1024 bytes. Minutiae Template Now, the online process starts. At the verification stage, the template from the claimant fingerprint is compared against that of the enrollee fingerprint. This is done usually by comparing neighborhoods of nearby minutiae for similarity. A single neighborhood may consist of three or more nearby minutiae. Each of these is located at a certain distance and relative orientation from each other. Furthermore, each minutia has its own attributes of type (if it is used) and minutia direction, which are also compared. If comparison indicates only small differences between the neighborhood in the enrollee fingerprint and that in the claimant fingerprint, then these neighborhoods are said to match. This is done exhaustively for all combinations of neighborhoods and if enough similarities are found, then the fingerprints are said to match. Template matching can be visualized as graph matching that is comparing the shapes of graphs joining fingerprint minutiae. A 1:1 matching cannot be carried out and we use a threshold value – termed as match score, usually a number ranging between 0 and 1. Higher the value, higher is the match. Figure 6: Few- Matching in online process Minutiae are extracted from the two fingerprints and stored as sets of points in the two dimensional plane. Minutia-based matching consists of finding the alignment between the template and the input minutiae feature sets, that results in the maximum number of minutiae pairs. 1) Weiguo Sheng et.al In their paper, the authors proposed a memetic fingerprint matching algorithm that aimed to identify optimal global matching between two sets of minutiae. The minutiae local feature representation called the minutiae descriptor that had information about the orientation field sampled in a circular pattern around the minutiae was used by them in the first stage. In the second stage, a genetic algorithm(GA) with a local improvement operator was used to effectively design an efficient algorithm for the minutiae point pattern matching problem. The local improvement operator utilized the nearest neighbor relationship to assign a binary correspondence at each step. Matching function based on the product rule was used for fitness computation. Experimental results over four fingerprint databases confirmed that the memetic fingerprint matching algorithm(MFMA) was reliable. 2) Kai Cao et al A penalized quadratic model to deal with the non-linear distortion in fingerprint matching was presented by the above authors. A fingerprint was represented using minutiae and points sampled at a constant interval on each valid ridge. Similarity between minutiae was estimated by the minutia orientation descriptor based on its neighboring ridge sampling points. Greedy matching algorithm was adopted to establish initial correspondences between minutiae pairs. The proposed algorithm used these correspondences to select landmarks or points to calculate the quadratic model parameters. The input fingerprint is warped according to the quadratic model, and compared with the template to obtain the final similarity score. The algorithm was evaluated on a fingerprint database consisting of 800 fingerprint images. 3) Peng Shi et.al In their paper, the authors proposed a novel fingerprint matching algorithm based on minutiae sets combined with the global statistical features. The two global statistical features of fingerprint image used in their algorithm were mean ridge width and the normalized quality estimation of the whole image. The fingerprint image was enhanced based on the orientation field map. The mean ridge width and the quality estimation of the whole image were got during the enhancement process. Minutiae were extracted on the thinned ridge map to form the minutiae set of the input fingerprint. The algorithm used to estimate the mean ridge width of fingerprint, was based on the block-level on non-overlap windows in fingerprint image. Four databases were used to compute the matching performance of the algorithm. 4) Sharat Chikkerur et.al The local neighborhood of each minutiae was defined by a representation called K-plet that is invariant under translation and rotation. The local structural relationship of the K-plet was encoded in the form of a graph wherein each minutiae was represented by a vertex and each neighboring minutiae by a directed graph. Dynamic programming algorithm was used to match the local neighborhood. A Coupled Breadth First Search algorithm was proposed to consolidate all the local matches between the two fingerprints. The performance of the matching algorithm was evaluated on a database consisting of 800 images. 5) Jin Qi and Yang Sheng Wang They proposed a minutiae-based fingerprint matching method. They defined a novel minutiae feature vector that integrated the minutiae details of the fingerprint with the orientation field information that was invariant to rotation and translation. It captured information on ridge-flow pattern. A triangular match method that was robust to non-linear deformation was used. The orientation field and minutiae were combined to determine the matching score. They evaluated the performance of their algorithm on a public domain collection of 800 fingerprint images. 6) Atanu Chatterjee et.al Another method for fingerprint identification and verification by minutiae feature extraction was proposed by the above authors. Minutiae were extracted from the thinned ridges from the fingerprint images and these feature matrices were applied as input data set to the Artificial Neural Network. Post processing was done to remove false minutia. Back propagation algorithm was used to train the network. Extracted features of the input fingerprint were verified with stored trained weights and threshold values. Experiments were conducted on 160 fingerprint images and the proposed system exhibited an accuracy of 95%. 7) Tsai Yang Jea et.al A flow network-based fingerprint matching technique for partial fingerprints was introduced by. For each minutiae along with its two nearest neighbors, a feature vector was generated which was used for the matching process. Minimum cost flow (MCF) problem algorithm was used to find the one-to-one correspondence between the feature vectors and the list of possibly matched features was obtained. A two hidden layer fully connected Neural Network was proposed to calculate the similarity score. Their experiments on two fingerprint databases showed that using neural networks for generating similarity scores improved accuracy. 8) Marius Tico et.al They have proposed a method of fingerprint matching based on a novel representation for the minutiae. The proposed minutiae representation incorporated ridge orientation information in a circular region, describing the appearance of the fingerprint pattern around the minutiae. Average Fingerprint Ridge period was evaluated to select the sampling points around the minutiae. Matching algorithm was based on point pattern matching. To recover the geometric transformation between the two fingerprint impressions, a registration stage was included. The Greedy algorithm was used to construct a set of corresponding minutiae. Experiments were conducted on two public domain collections of fingerprint images and were found to achieve good performance. 9) Asker M.Bazen et. al A minutiae matching method using a local and global matching stage was presented by Asker M. Bazen et. Al. Their elastic matching algorithm estimated the non-linear transformation model in two stages. The local matching algorithm compared each minutia neighborhood in the test fingerprint to each minutia neighborhood in the template fingerprints. Least square algorithm was used to align the two structures to obtain a list of corresponding minutia pairs. Global transformation was done to optimally register the two fingerprints that represented the elastic deformations by a thin-plate spline (TPS) model. The TPS model describes the transformed coordinates independently as a function of the original coordinates. Local and global alignments were used to determine the matching score. Conclusion This paper, we presented Fingerprint identification and verification based on minutiae based matching. The original fingerprint captures is pre-processed and the pattern is stored in the database for verification and identification. The pre-processing of the original fingerprint involves image binarization, ridge thinning, and noise removal. Fingerprint Recognition using Minutiae Score Matching method is used for matching the minutiae points. Usually a technique called minutiae matching is used to be able to handle automatic fingerprint recognition with a computer system. In this literature review, nine papers are explored and an insight is obtained regarding different methods. References: [1] Weiguo Sheng, Gareth Howells, Michael Fairhurst, and Farzin Deravi,(2007), â€Å"A Memetic Fingerprint Matching Algorithm†, IEEE Transactions On Information Forensics And Security. [2] Aparecido Nilceu Marana and Anil K. Jain, (2005), â€Å"Ridge-Based Fingerprint Matching Using Hough Transform†, IEEE Computer Graphics and Image Processing, 18th Brazilian Symposium pp. 112-119. [3] Koichi Ito, Ayumi Morita, Takafumi Aoki, Tatsuo Higuchi, Hiroshi Nakajima, and Koji Kobayashi, (2005), â€Å"A Fingerprint Recognition Algorithm using Phase-Based Image Matching for low quality fingerprints†, IEEE International Conference on Image Processing, Vol. 2, pp. 33-36. [4] Kai Cao, Yang, X., Tao, X., Zhang, Y., Tian, J. ,(2009), â€Å"A novel matching algorithm for distorted fingerprints based on penalized quadratic model†, IEEE 3rd International Conference on Biometrics: Theory, Applications, and Systems, pp. 1-5. [5] Anil K. Jain and Jianjiang Feng, (2011), â€Å"Latent Fingerprint Matching†, IEEE Transactions On Pattern Analysis And Machine Intelligence, Vol. 33, No. 1, pp. 88-100. [6] Unsang Park, Sharath Pankanti, A. K. Jain, (2008), â€Å"Fingerprint Verification Using SIFT Features†, SPIE Defense and Security Symposium, Orlando, Florida, pp. 69440K-69440K. [7] Anil Jain, Yi Chen, and Meltem Demirkus, (2007), â€Å"Pores and Ridges: High-Resolution Fingerprint Matching Using Level 3 Features†, IEEE Transactions On Pattern Analysis And Machine Intelligence, Vol. 29, No.1, pp. 15-27. [8] Mayank Vatsa, Richa Singh, Afzel Noore, Max M. Houck, (2008), â€Å"Quality-augmented fusion of level-2 and level-3 fingerprint information using DSm theory†, Sciencedirect International Journal of Approximate Reasoning 50, no. 1, pp. 51–61. [9] Haiyun Xu, Raymond N. J. Veldhuis, Asker M. Bazen, Tom A. M. Kevenaar, Ton A. H. M. Akkermans and Berk Gokberk ,(2009), â€Å"Fingerprint Verification Using Spectral Minutiae Representations†,IEEE Transactions On Information Forensics And Security, Vol. 4, No. 3,pp. 397-409. [10] Mayank Vatsa, Richa Singh, Afzel Noore and Sanjay K. Singh ,(2009),â€Å"Combining Pores and Ridges with Minutiae for Improved Fingerprint Verification†, Elsevier, Signal Processing 89, pp.2676–2685. [11] Jiang Li, Sergey Tulyakov and Venu Govindaraju, (2007), â€Å"Verifying Fingerprint Match by Local Correlation Methods†, First IEEE International Conference on Biometrics: Theory, Applications,and Systems, pp.1-5. [12] Xinjian Chen, Jie Tian, Xin Yang, and Yangyang Zhang, (2006), â€Å"An Algorithm for Distorted Fingerprint Matching Based on Local Triangle Feature Set†, IEEE Transactions On Information Forensics And Security, Vol. 1, No. 2, pp. 169-177. [13] Peng Shi, Jie Tian, Qi Su, and Xin Yang, (2007), â€Å"A Novel Fingerprint Matching Algorithm Based on Minutiae and Global Statistical Features†, First IEEE International Conference on Biometrics: Theory, Applications, and Systems, pp. 1-6. [14] Qijun Zhao, David Zhang, Lei Zhang and Nan Luo, (2010), â€Å"High resolution partial fingerprint alignment using pore–valley descriptors†, Pattern Recognition, Volume 43 Issue 3, pp. 1050- 1061. [15] Liu Wei-Chao and Guo Hong-tao ,(2014), † Occluded Fingerprint Recognition Algorithm Based on Multi Association Features Match â€Å", Journal Of Multimedia, Vol. 9, No. 7, pp. 910—917 [16] Asker M. Bazen, Gerben T.B. Verwaaijen, Sabih H. Gerez, Leo P.J. Veelenturf and Berend Jan van der Zwaag, (2000), A correlation-based fingerprint verification system , ProRISC 2000 Workshop

What factors can positively and negatively impact the implementation Research Paper

What factors can positively and negatively impact the implementation and use of a Business Intelligence (BI) application Define these factors, and explain how they may impact BI implementation - Research Paper Example Several global companies around the world like that of Microsoft and Oracle have recognized the need and the value of using business intelligence. The ease of use and the flexibility have made the application a very useable application both by the employee and the employer. Communication system effectiveness has made a significant contribution to the progression of human endeavor. Information is presently utilized as well as generated at a rapid rate. The growth of number of organizations and increase in specialization and also divisionalization has fashioned barriers in the process of information flow. There is also an ever increasing need for undertaking more rapid decisions at various level of responsibility far below the amount which was required in the past. Automation has turned out to be an efficient method for disseminating and retrieving information. There has been development of newer techniques which can be used to disseminate data quickly to the appropriate places and also furnish different information on demand. The techniques used for this purpose are ‘auto abstracting of documents’, ‘auto encoding of documents’, automatic creation and also updating of action-point based profiles. These statistical based procedur es can be used to present data processing machines. A comprehensive system can be prepared along with suitable communication facilities and input-output equipment. This system can accommodate all the information related problems which may be present in an organization. This multi functional system can be referred as Business Intelligence (BI) System (Luhn 1958). Business Intelligence (BI) can be stated as the process of turning a data into information and subsequently into knowledge. Business intelligence is a key enabler for the increase of performance as well as value. Knowledge aspect is typically attained about the customer decision making procedures, customer needs, general economic, and conditions in

The Causes of Crime Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

The Causes of Crime - Term Paper Example    One of the well-known researches that applied the Sociological Theory was made by a French Sociologist named Emile Durkheim. He conducted a classic study of suicide, with an attempt to explain the difference between the sociological from psychological intentions of individuals. According to Durkheim, there are four main types of suicide: Egoistic suicide – committed by people who do not feel attached to a group or community that commands their loyalty and participation, for example, foreign students in America who are away from their family and friends. Altruistic suicide – committed by people who have excessive loyalty to his group than himself, for example, soldiers compared to the individual. Fatalistic suicide – occurs when people believe that there is nothing they can do to alter their living conditions. Anomic suicide – people depend on social guidelines to order their lives and they commit these suicides to have one consequence when rules of behavior are conflicting (Encyclopedia of Death and Dying, 2007).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In arriving at his conclusions, Durkheim identified few factors relating to the issue and applied theories one at a time to the data until they fitted. He concluded that â€Å"suicide rate varied from group to group† (Gelles and Levine, 1999, p.25). It means to say that there is no exact causal pattern for suicide and the tendency that people may or may not commit suicide depends upon the attributes of the group he belongs to. For example, Japanese soldiers were most likely to take their lives than other members of armed forces; â€Å"unmarried people had much higher rates than married people did† (Schaefer, 2001, p. 11). Though Durkheim offered a more scientific explanation to the causes of suicides compared to other findings, his conclusions were still weak. A theory is not a final explanation of events, like human behavior. That is why sociologists continue to determine other factors that will explain why people commit suicide (summarized based f rom Shaefer, 2001, p.11; website reference containing closely similar facts at http://www.hewett.norfolk.sch.uk/CURRIC/soc/durkheim/durkw2.htm)

Bioterrorism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Bioterrorism - Essay Example This primitive way of introducing deadly microorganisms in the society is now modernized by the advancement of science and technology which allows scientists to create strains of germs and viruses that can harm the society either by causing diseases or making the human immune system more susceptible to diseases. One of the most recent examples of bioterrorism attack is the 2001 case of anthrax in the United States which caused a global stir by killing five people and infecting 17 others. The adverse effects of bioterrorism can never be overstated. It should be noted that these attacks are often aimed at creating mass panic and disruption in the community. Diseases which are often incurable propagate chaos and bring in more problems in the social and political arena. Bioterrorists attacks like the foot and mouth disease in the United Kingdom did not directly harm human being but had been very detrimental to its economy particularly in the produce of livestock.

Are too many people being sent to prison Research Paper

Are too many people being sent to prison - Research Paper Example These are some of the questions that come to mind when one views the growing statistics of prisoners worldwide. This paper will focus on the fact that too many people are being sent to prison. There are too many people being imprisoned worldwide. The United States is leading in statistics for having many people in prison worldwide. The population in jail has risen by over ten times as compared to thirty years ago. Most prisons are overcrowded and the cost incurred by the state in its move to fighting crime is colossal and could be falling out of hand if nothing is done to address it. People are being sent to prison for minor crimes. Minor drug offenders for instance, make up a large number of inmates, are being jailed for long terms. Debaters have argued that these minor offenders should be subjected to other forms of disciplinary action like being made to do some community service in public. They claim that this would be a more positive way to punish them and subsequently the other offenders who have not been caught will learn from them (Doughty 1). Take a tour to any prison around and you won’t fail to notice the evident congestion. The prison facilities have been suffocated by the vast number of prisoners being injected to the system on a daily basis. Inmates in these prisons are facing unmentionable miseries since the facilities and resources in the prisons are not enough hence they have to live like slaves. Alabama’s prisons for instance, hold twice the number of prisoners that they were originally designed to hold. Their daily budget per prisoner is less than half the national average amount that should be spent on an individual prisoner. This strain is far from over since the number of people being sentenced is still increasing and new facilities have not been set up to accommodate them (Doughty 1). The increase in the number of people in the lower class is directly related to the increase in the number of people being sent to

What is 'Queer Thoery' Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

What is 'Queer Thoery' - Essay Example In the stream of interest to set up new scholarly and popular frontiers, the orientation of this theory has been heavily directed at demonstrating how and why long-standing disciplinary accounts have fallen short to defend and do justice to queer groups. However, quite a handful of thorough analyses have investigated the implications and effects of these queer perspectives on current academic disciplines, or possibly will more significantly, in the framework of contemporary social life. The concept of ‘queer,’ in that case, is the deconstruction of common ideas regarding gender and sexuality, from their embodiment in literature, movies and music to their assignment to the social as well as in the physical sciences. The movement of ‘queer’ is in fact the ‘queering’ of traditions, spanning from the rereading of characters in literatures and movies to the reviewing of historical analyses. As a movement, we have witnessed the declaration of identity of queers, particularly labelled as gay, lesbian, bisexual, transgender and transsexual, as human behaviour variations that possess their individual rights. As a theory, the origin of queer from post structuralism and postmodernism results into the elimination of all classifications as restricting and branded by prevailing power structures. Before the concept of ‘queer’ was, in its best notion, jargon for homosexual, in its worst, a notion of homophobic ill-treatment. In current years ‘queer’ has been used diversely, at times an umbrella concept for an association of culturally minor sexual self-identities and sometimes to illustrate an emerging theoretical framework which has emerged out of more long-established gay and lesbian studies. The abrupt development and reinforcement of gay and lesbian studies in universities almost two decades ago is matched by an increasing use of the concept of ‘queer’

Is Global Warming a Hoax Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Is Global Warming a Hoax - Research Paper Example Global warming, the theory of climate change has aroused intense controversy regarding the extent to which our activities affect global temperature and weather patterns. Although there a lot of people out there who are trying to keep their carbon emission to the minimum, skeptics believe that human induced global warming is insignificant and the evolution from fire to nuclear energy is a path of improved human health and welfare arising from efficient and effective access to energy. Whatever may be the argument, earth temperature is rising year after year. In this regard, my research aims to ultimately address the issue: is global warming a hoax and is it actually an exaggeration? Certain atmospheric gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, ozone, and water vapor, trap solar energy and keep the temperature of the earth warmer than it would be without such gases (Henson, 2006, pp. 19-26). This is known as greenhouse effect. The greenhouse effect is absolutely necessary to keep the Earth at a temperature that sustains life. Without greenhouse effect, the temperature of the earth would be colder than today’s average range, too cold to sustain the earth’s existing plant and animal life. ... 279). Global warming is having an adverse effect on the environment in the Arctic. Rising temperatures endangers populations of animals that live in an ice based ecosystem. Polar bears, walruses and seals are now often underweight or malnourished because higher temperatures limit their ice based food sources and disrupt their feeding and weaning cycle. Although natural climatic changes are partially responsible for the rise in the average temperature over the past century, the current rate of glacial erosion suggests that higher levels of greenhouse gases are contributing significantly to global warming. Glacial melting could lead to damaging flash flood in some locales. Other region that depend on melting snow for hydroelectric power could run low on water after glaciers have disappeared, requiring more communities to use pollution-creating oil or coal for energy, which in turn would produce more green house gases and more global warming. Most scientists who have participated in rec ent climatological studies agree that global warming will affect the world’s ecosystems and weather patterns. In addition, rising temperature and increased precipitation are likely to have harmful effect on human health. It also facilitates the growth of many disease insects like anopheles gambiae mosquito, Culex mosquito and flies (Johannes, p. 611). Global warming due to industrial pollution increases the cancer rate (Koeppel, 2001, p. 16). â€Å"As the planet’s largest consumer of fossil fuel, the United States, whose industry is responsible for some 35 percent of all the greenhouse gases ever created by human activity, was already cast as villain† (Christianson, 1999, p. 255). Due to the alarming levels of greenhouse gases continuing to increase

Food Preservative Essay Example for Free

Food Preservative Essay Food Industry is one of the complexes which involve a vast global collection of many businesses that come together to avail food energy consumed throughout the world population. Those farmers who merely depend on food that they plant are not considered to be part of food industry in these modern days. The food industry includes the following: Regulations- These regulations range from local to international rules and regulations which govern food production and sales, food quality and safety, and general industry lobbying activities (David, Grotton, 1979, pg417). Education- This can be academic which results to professional in food production, vocational which involves basic training or consultancy which deals on consultation regarding different food products. Research and development- This involves food technology in order to invest various ways of food production which does not exist in the market. Financial services which include insurance and credit services. Manufacturing- Food industry involved in manufacturing of Agro-chemicals, seeds, farm machinery and supplies of agricultural construction. Agriculture- This is a basic area in food industry since it deals with raising of crops, livestock and also sea foods which are the main raw material used in food industries. Food processing- This involves preparing fresh products for sale in markets and also it involves manufacture of already prepared food products. Marketing- This deals with promotion of new products in market. It also gets views from public opinion by advertising packaging and public relation. Wholesale and distribution- This is done in warehouses, transportation and logistics. Retails- Food products are basically sold in supermarkets, stones, direct con. Summer restaurants and other food services centers. Therefore, food industry basically covers all aspects of food production and sales. All transactions between productions of food up to the time food is taken to the market are taken care of. The industry size of food production is quite wide since it covers worldwide population and it’s approximately US $3. 2 trillion in 2004. For example, in United State they spend about US $ 1 trillion annually for food or almost ten percent of their gross domestic product (Harratio, 2007, pg 370). This industry due to its diversity and great need to expand it has around 16. 5 million people who are employed in the industry. Food industry regulations are very vital in every stage from production to consumption. These stages include production, processing, distribution, retail, packaging and labeling of all food products. All these are governed by a mass of laws, regulations, code of practice and guidance. There are general food laws which must be followed by everyone whether one is working in a food business or he or she is involved in consumption of the food productions. This deals mainly with registration of foods which are either imported or exported, the safety of food, labeling, product withdrawals and recall (Brown, 2001, pg 439). For example, the main food laws which are used in United Kingdom are:- Food safety act of 1990 which involved registration of general food registration in Great Britain. General food law regulation 178/2002. General food regulations 2004. This incorporated imposition of penalties to those who breaks food regulation. Some of the food safety and consumer protection offenses include Rendering foods which can injure one’s health by either: I ) Adding something harmful to food. ii) Using harmful ingredients in production of food. iii) Removing any food constituent which can benefit the consumer iv) Passing food through processes which are no recommended. Selling product to purchaser which is not of the nature, substance or quality demanded by the buyer. Using false descriptions or presentation of foods in order to entice customers. Commission of defense is due to the act of default of another person, the other person is guilt of the offense. In European countries, Food imported to these countries must comply with all their Food safety regulations or else they should enter into an agreement with the exporting countries for those requirements. Exportation by European countries demands that food should meet the required food law, not unless the importing country demands otherwise as per their laws. The safety standards of food should be followed strictly this is passed by the law that states: Food shall not be placed in market if it’s unsafe. Food can be regarded as unsafe if its-injurious to one’s health. – Unfit for human consumption. The labeling, advertising, presentation and setting of food product for consumer should be done in such a way that it would no mislead the consumer. For traceability purposes, operators of business need to keep accurate records of food, food substances and producing animals supplied to their businesses and also records of suppliers where they buy their commodities which should ensure that this information shall be made available to authorities on demand. Food business operator can withdraw food which is not complying with safety standards incase it has left their control and recall food incase it has reached the consumer. In case any company breakdown any of these offenses, the company is liable to penalties laid down by general food regulation (Windsor, 1959, pg 37). Food law guide is a process which needs to be updated each and every time in order to comply with food standard every time. In food industry, there should be regulatory impact assessment team which its main duty is assessment of costs, benefits and risks of regulations laid down which could adversely affect the business in one way or another. These teams are either produced by government or agencies which have statutory powers for making laws. The government is trying to put up better regulatory initiatives which will work with food standard agency which is a statutory body which protects public health and consumer’s other interest related to food and drinks. Deregulation can lead to food safety coming to a critical condition since it opposes most of the regulation acts imposed in food production till marketing time. These deregulations may include:- Free trade agreement. Due to free trade agreement the safety standards of food during export and import times are looked down upon and this can lead to harmful consumption of food. For any successful company to grow well, merging with other companies is quite essential since it enables diversity and acquisition of new methods and formulas which the merging company has. Merging stimulate growth and expression of ideas to give a wide range of products to be produced. The main aim of encouraging merging and acquisition of businesses is to reduce the number of firms operating on one same thing and consequently they increase concentration since the number of firms have lessen and therefore management can focus on something substantial since they are concentrating on a smaller area than before. Also through merging and acquisition companies promote anticompetitive pricing behavior since operations will be taking place on one company which can set standard prices for each items (Manley, 1940, pg 83). In food industry, they have focused merging as something that can bring great impact in economy since it basically changes employment structures. Therefore merges and acquisition results to workers dislocation since the companies will be fewer than before which lead to retrenchment of some workers. The food industry had two distinct mergers and acquisition involved in eight different food industries. These occurred from 1977 to 1982 and from 1982 to 1987. This mergers and acquisitions did not necessary portray the processes causing workers dislocation and lost wages. During the acquisition and mergers, small plants in food industries were added workers during the first merge wave but not during the second one. Mergers and acquisition had small but positive effect on wage during the first merger of 1977-1982 while little effect was felt during the second merger period. Mergers and acquisition also enables many plants to exit their industries during the 1977-82 period and facilitated closure of some firms during the period during 1982-1987. Therefore productivity can be increased and profitability of industry enhanced by actively participating in acquisition and merging of industries. Joint venture by different companies helps the businesses to grow increasingly and therefore increases business interest. Joint ventures also help the business to diversify its products and it basically operates like mergers and acquisition (Zhouying, 2005, pg317). Food technology has greatly advanced in many food companies through invention of new ways of production and marketing of food produce. Food supply chains in any food industry must give way to dynamic supply network and elaborate food technology that drive them. Technology enables high volumes of distributed transactions which take place between different members of supply chain in a rapid and low cost manner. Food technology should be used even during marketing to fit to a variety of transactions.

Disaster: The Nepal Earthquake

Disaster: The Nepal Earthquake Major Event: Disaster The Nepal Earthquake ; Figure 1: Mounting damage Presented by: Steven Eu Su Shian   PLAN INTRODUCTION A tragedy happened two years ago on April 25th, 2015 in an Asian country called Nepal. It also; known; as The Nepal Earthquake. It caused a lot of difficulties to the Nepalese citizens and also it drew a lot of attention from the people around the world. The purpose of this report is to provide; information about The Nepal Earthquake. This report will pay particular attention to the effects after Nepal Earthquake happened, the economic impact and also the effects on the Nepalese citizens. METHODOLOGY The information for this report were all found from the Internet. Besides, there will be some recommendations in the concluding part. MAIN POINTS A) The effects after the earthquake happened After the earthquake happened, Revd Lewis Lew described that the effects of the tremendous 7.9 magnitude that happened in the 80 km far in northwest of the capital city, Kathmandu and the after-effect after an hour were shocking. Besides, according to the National Emergency Operation Centre, at the minimum 3617 people were killed by the earthquake, and also above 6500 people were injured during the earthquake. On the other hand, more than hundreds people from the neighbouring countries such as China, India and Bangladesh were also killed by the earthquake. Moreover, huge damage to the assets and the substructures such as banks has been reported in Kathmandu and the distant villages, access to which has been split by the mudslides. Furthermore, according to Dean Revd Lewis Lew, plenty of buildings collapsed, particularly those in old Kathmandu City. And also, a lot of survivors were in bad shape, they were all waiting for the medical treatment. ; Figure 2: Hospitals in the street B) The economic impact The early evaluations of the economic impact caused by The Nepal Earthquake were astonishing. The total of the economic impact in Nepal is evaluated to be above $10 billion USD, which is also 50 percent of the countrys gross domestic product-GDP (https://qz.com/409848), according to the Nepalese government. Next, the Nepalese government could also spend as much as 5 billion USD or even more than that as the budget for the different kind of infrastructures such as houses, highways or bridges. On the other hand, the damages and destruction of the apartment buildings and houses caused by the earthquake has had a serious impact. The rentals, housing price and the land price could possibly affected by; the earthquake . For the examples the house prices might increase, and also the rental distension could also happen in Nepal. It might also increase the burden of the citizens in the future. C) The effects on the citizens After the tremendous earthquake that happened on April 25th, 2015 in Nepal, according to the United Nations (www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-32492232), eight million Nepalese citizens were affected, which was more than 25 percent of the countrys population. Besides, eight million people from 39 different areas were affected, and the major problems were lack of food, water and electricity supplies. Furthermore, according to an American doctor Rebecca McAteer (www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-32492232) majority of houses were destroyed. Not only that but also most of the citizens were being displaced and the young people had to leave to find the work. Moreover, the camps were also set up on a park, with the rubbish around such as paper plates, packages, and plastic glasses. One of the men who was living there with his spouse and his four children said that they were not going home even though they were still able to live in their house. He explained the reason why they refused to live in their house was because of they have heard the stories about more earthquake and after-effects. In addition, the hospitals were also not able to handle the massive numbers of the citizens who were in need of the medical treatment. And this caused some of them started to complain on the medical service. ; Figure 3: Cremating victims CONCLUSION In conclusion, it would be useful if we could know more about the Nepal Earthquake that happened on 25th, 2015. As the report mentioned earlier, Nepal Earthquake has caused a lot of troubles and difficulties to the Nepalese citizens. For example it caused massive numbers of death, food, water and electricity supplies shortage, economic impact and also the displaced problems. From the information, perhaps the Nepalese government can begin to implement some methods to prevent the next potential earthquake .For instance the government can organise a conference about an earthquake such as what should the citizens do during the earthquake, or government can also begin to plan a better evacuation plan for the citizens so that the government and the citizens can be well prepared for the next earthquake and minimize the effection after an earthquake. Bibliography Effect of earthquake devastating report Anglican Deanery of Nepal. Retrieved March 7, 2017. From www.anglicannews.org/news 2015/04/effects-of-earthquake-devastating-report-anglican-deanery-of-nepal.aspx Karnik,(2015,May). The economic damage from the Nepal earthquake is almost half of the countrys GDP. Retrieved March 7,2017. From https://qz.com/409848 Nepal earthquake: Eight million people affected, UN says. Retrieved March 7, 2017. From www.bbc.com/news /world-asia-32492232 Figure 1. Damaged houses. Adapted from: ,20 Pictures reveal Nepals heartbreaking Earthquake devastation, By Nicole Werbeck, and Mallory Benedict, 2015, April 26th, National Geographic, p.1. Copyright 2015 by National Geographic. Figure 2. Survivor after the medical treatment. Adapted from: 20 Pictures reveal Nepals heartbreaking Earthquake devastation, By Nicole Werbeck and Mallory Benedict, 2015, April 26th, National Geographic, p.19. Copyright 2015 by National Geographic. Figure 3. Heartbreaking moment for the victims family. Adapted from: 20 Pictures reveal Nepals heartbreaking Earthquake devastation, By Nicole Werbeck and Mallory Benedict, 2015, April 26th, National Geographic, p.8. Copyright 2015 by National Geographic. Saudi Pak Commercial Bank: Analysis Saudi Pak Commercial Bank: Analysis THE VISION To transform the Bank into a modern, dynamic and premier service oriented institution. THE MISSION â€Å"To turnaround the Bank into a leading commercial bank by ensuring transparency, promoting technology, improving quality of human resource, providing premium services to customers, and adding value for all stakeholders.† Statement Of Ethics And Business Practices: The code of ethics established by Saudi Pak Commercial Bank Limited sets forth the guiding principles through which we operate and conduct our daily business with our shareholders, customers, vendors and with other group companies. These principles also apply to the officers and employees of the Bank Our Customers: We operate as customer oriented Bank and serve our customers with the highest standard of skill and service In dealing with our customers, we comply with legal, statutory and regulatory requirements We ensure transparency in operations. Our Shareholders We strive to maximize the value for our shareholders and minimize the risk of dilution in the value of shareholders through adequate risk management. Our Staff Our staff observes a high standard of integrity and demonstrates befitting conduct and behavior. In performing their duties, our staff shows sense of responsibility and team spirit. Concerted efforts are made to promote congenial corporate culture in the Bank. Credit Operations. We conduct the credit operations under clearly spelt out policies and procedures and review the policies and procedures periodically to suit changing conditions. Our credit operations are transparent and the credit decisions are made with prudence. We keep adequate provisioning against doubtful loans as per State Bank of Pakistan guidelines and ensure that the internal controls are in place and are observed in right earnest. Risk Management: We have designed and placed a proper system to identigy, measure and control the material risks. Social Responsibility: We recognize our wider social responsibility in terms of the contribution we can make to the well being of the communities in which we operate. We do not make donations to or extend any financing to or take any exposure towards any political parties. Maintaining Confidentiality: We attach great importance to safeguarding the confidentiality of data concerning the its customers and other business relationships. We do not disclose information about our customers to third parties without the customers consent unless there is a clear legal or regulatory obligation to do so. CHAPTER # 2 REVIEW OF DIFFERENT DEPARTMENT Car Financing Scheme As all banks are moving towards consumer Banking. Saudi Pak Commercial moves towards consumer Banking through Car Financing Scheme. They start Car financing Scheme in the month of June to Satisfy the needs of the customer. Competitor: As Mirpur (AJK) is the only well flourished industrial city of Azad Kashmir, so there is large variety of Financial Institute and Banks and the changing attitude of banks towards consumer banking is one of the major reason of competition. Some of the major competitors are Bolan Bank Citi Bank PICIC Commercial Bank Faysal Bank Prime Bank MCB HBL Out of these banks major threat was from HBL, Bolan Bank and Faysal Bank. Usually the customers look forward for low Markup rate, so these banks were giving low markup rates, but they were also charging the hidden charges. Saudi Pak Commercial Bank Car Financing Scheme: As the rising demand in the market, Saudi Pak Commercial Bank Limited start the car financing scheme in month of June. Down Payment Options: Saudi Pak Commercial Bank Limited gives the large variety of down payments. The range of down payments varies from 10% to 60% to original value of the car. Secondly the loan amortization schedule can vary between 12 months and five years time period. So you has the large variety of options to pay the installments according to your convenience. One of the most important and plus point of Saudi Pak Commercial Bank car financing scheme is that they offer the variety of cars which are available in the market such as: Toyota Honda Suzuki Hyundai Fiat Nissan Saudi Pak Commercial Bank Limited offers the free insurance to their customer Age Limit: The age limit to apply for car financing Scheme is between 21 and 50. this is only for individuals. Eligibility Basically Saudi Pak Commercial Bank divides its customer in three groups on the basis of probability of the consumer to pay back the installments within time Group A: Group A usually include the executive class or regular premium customer of the banks and well known organizations. In business class the customer who are including in Group A are working in the specific profession or kind of business from the last five years and their mostly income is at least Rs. 30,000/-. Instead of business class we also include the high authority Government servants in this class. Those whose scale is above eighteen. The people who are including in Group A usually get loan more easily because they are consider the most reliable customer. Group B: Group B includes the customer who are running the individual business and small organization and they are working in that field from the last two years. In that group usually includes the shopkeepers and small organization such as cable operator Group C: Group C is the group which we usually dont prefer to give the loan and the chances of recommendation of their loans are very low, usually customers who belongs to that group are businessman having income less than Twelve thousands and organization such as Rent A Car Services. Documentations: The following documents are required Application Form ID Card photo copy Bank Statements Three years proof of tax return Salary Slip ( For Salaried Person) Process: Step 1: Filling Application Form: The first step involve in applying for Car Financing Scheme is to fill the application form along with the documents mentioned above. Customer should fill the application form very carefully. They should mentioned right data about themselves, any wrong or incorrect data may reject the application form. Step 2: Approval of Application Form from the Branch: Second step is the approval of application form from the branch. Bank officer examine the application form. If the customer fulfill the requirements mentioned above bank accept the application and send this application to the head office for further approval. Step 3: Delivery of Car: If the head office find no objection in application form and eligibility criteria of car financing. They send approval letter to the bank. After the approval car delivered on the basis of availability of car in the showroom. If the customer financed the car on the market price basis than the bank deliver the car just after the approval otherwise on the availability. Deposits Department Deposit is the main functional unit of any commercial bank. It is the primary function of commercial bank. Main function of commercial bank is to get money from the customer and give some markup on that amount. Two types of deposits are offered by the Saudi Pak Commercial Bank. Call Deposits: These are payable on demand. They include current account, sundry deposit (e.g. margin account) and call deposit receipt. No profit is given on demand deposits. Time Deposit: Payable on demand with certain maturity. Attracts profit with respect to time. TYPE OF ACCOUNTS: Let us now turn to procedures to be followed in cases of each type of account. Individual Account: Such accounts may be classified and gentlemen Account of literate ladies and gentlemen. Account of illiterate ladies and gentlemen. Account of Parda observing ladies. Joint Account. Minor Account 1: In case of illiterate ladies and gents, the following precautions are observed in addition to those provided in the above guidelines. Two photographs are to be obtained. One to be pasted on account opening form and the other on specimen signature card Instead of signatures, left had thumb impression to be obtained on the specimen card from gents and right hand thumb impression from the ladies. Each time such customer should attend the bank personally and will put their thumb impression on the cheques before the passing officer. Such customers should be advised not to issue cheques payable to 3rd parties. Cheque should be marked â€Å"Payment in person† to ensure even if the cheque is presented through clearing that particular cheque can only be paid in person. 2: the problems arise particularly in case of parda observing ladies. Some serious complication are involved in this concern. As for as possible, they should be encouraged to open a joint account with their close family members. 3: when more than one person opens account but the relationship between them is neither of trustees nor partners, it would be termed as joint account. Whenever such account is opened, definite instructions regarding operations on the accounts and payment of balance in case of death of any one of them should be obtained. In absence of any instructions for the accounts operations, all the joint account holders should sign the cheques for withdrawal of amount from their accounts. Likewise, definite instructions must also be obtain for payment of balance in the account in the event of death of any of the joint account holders. For this purpose all the joint account holders are required to sign account opening form as well as either or survivorship declaration. In operation of joint accounts, following important points are required to be remembered: Any member of the joint account may lodge stop payment instruction of any cheque with the bank and the bank shall honor such instructions. However, all the members must sign removal of these instruction. The member of joint account may wish to delegate authority to any third person to operate upon the accounts. However such a mandate is necessarily to be signed by all the members. Any mandate, reference to which is given herein 2ne above, becomes automatically rescinded or cancelled when the bank come to know of death, insolvency or insanity of any of the members In case, any of the members of the joint account becomes insolvent or insane operation on the account should be stopped and instruction to be required for payment of the balance amount from the remaining solvent and same members. In case, any of the member of the joint account dies, operation on the account must be stopped and balance in account is to be paid as per instructions recorded with the bank. Accounts of Partnership Firm: While opening accounts of the partnership firm, the partnership deed from registered firms is required to be obtained in addition to account opening form and specimen signature card. The partnership letter is incorporated in the account opening form , which must also be signed by all the partners of the firm weather registered or un-registered. In these accounts, the following points are required to be remembered. For Example: The account opening form must be signed by all the partners. The names of persons authorized to operate the account must neatly and correctly given in the account opening form. For partnership concern carrying on the business under impersonal names, it is generally described that the title of account should show name of the partners of Managing Partners. CASH DEPARTMENT Two most important tasks of bank are performed in the cash department and they are Payments Receipts In Payments cheques are presented to the bank against which payment is made. In Receipts, money is deposited with the bank and the bank issues a receipt against it. PROCEDURE Step I Customer presents his cheque over the counter, the person receiving it checks whether it is Drawn on a particular branch Date is correctly written on the cheque it should be neither stale nor post-dated. Amounts in words figures match. Duly signed by the payee on the front and back of the cheque. Step II After going through step `1 the cheque is sent to another person who verifies the signatures of the customer with his/her signatures on `SS card. Step III The cheque is sent to another officer who checks the account to see whether the account has sufficient balance to meet the payment or not. If the amount is more than Rs.10,000 then the cheque is approved by two persons they are Department Incharge Operational Manager If the amount is more than Rs.1000000 then the cheque is authenticated by three person they are Department Incharge Operational Manager Chief Manager Crossed Cheque These cheques are stamped with payees account only. This cheque is not directly paid on the counter, rather the payment is made through account of the customer to the one whose name is mentioned on the cheque. SCHOOL COMPANY BILLS Fees and dues submitted by companies and schools are in the form of bills. All these bills are credited to the bank. POSITION SLIP Some companies school have been given overdrawn facility. This slip is attached to those cheques of those schools and companies when officer has a doubt about paying those cheques. This position slip is attached to these cheques to inform the manager about their current position situation. Then if chief manager approves it then the payment is made otherwise not. CHEQUE RETURNED MEMO If the cheque presented by customer is returned because of the reason that the account does not has the required balance then the customer has this facility that he can submit cheque returned memo. But this memo is given to him on his own request. INCIDENTAL CHARGES `CD account should have a minimum balance of Rs.10,000. If in the account during six months at any time the balance of account goes below Rs.10,000. Then incidental charges of Rs.200 are charged from the customer. RETURN OF A CHEQUE A cheque is returned to the customer if the account balance is less than the amount of money demanded. ISSUANCE OF BANK STATEMENT The bank statement shows the overall position of an account at a particular date. Bank statements are issued to customers as per their request. For this customer has to give his account number and specific period for which he wants to have this statement. CASH INSURANCE All the cash on the counter and in the locker is insured one of the most important responsibilities of cash department is to manage liquidity, but not to keep idle cash with it. Cash is kept according to branch requirement, which in Saudi Pak Commercial Bank MirPur is Rs.10,000,000. Amount of money exceeding it is sent to main branch which given interest on it. This interest is added to branchs profit. Here `2 to `3 million is sent to the head office. A large number of customers come to this department during working hours. Therefore staff should be cooperative and helpful. REMITTANCE DEPARTMENT â€Å"It is a process by which the amount of cash is transferred from one place to another either in or out of the city but not in the form of cash but through the involvement of two banks† Demand Draft: It is the request of one bank to other bank to pay a certain sum of money to or to the order of the person whose name is mentioned in DD. It is used for funds transferred outside the city. Telegraphic Transferred: It is also a request b one bank to another bank to pay a certain sum of money to or to the order of the certain person it is used for funds transferred out of city. Pay Order: It is a request which is made to the other bank to pay the amount of the person whose name is mentioned there. It is within the city. When the person has transfer funds to another person in the city or out of city then he comes to the bank and gives the application on the specified form called Remittance From. This form contains name of branch, date, bank branch name beneficiarys name, account number, bank branch name, city, mode of payment in which the payment is received by other option given for DD, TT, PLO or SBP cheque the particulars of the purchaser i.e sender and his address is also written. Then on the lower side a column for instruments number (which is to be issued, its amount and the rate is there. Then another column is for cost, telex changes, commission, postage, excise duty, with holding tax, and total is there and in the last applicants acknowledge is received. And the signatures of two authorized persons are there. After this an entry is made in the system and is authenticated by another person. After that for TT or DD advices is printed by the printer and with the form it is sent to the beneficiary bank and incase of pay order a specified form is for this purpose which is used and on this the print is made and is handled over to the customer and an advice is sent to the beneficiary bank and the customer can take money from that bank. The account of the beneficiarys banks is settled through entries in books with SBP. CLEARING It is process through which one may receive the amount of a cheque presented to the bank while the cheque is drawn on any other bank. Procedure: First of all in the morning the banks representative goes to the NIFT office andreceives the cheques which are drawn upon the branch but are presented in any other branch of the same bank of the same bank or any other bank. The main Branch receives cheques of other branches, which are in the Lahore City.Then in the branch, these cheques are sorted out on the basis of parties and the cheques of parties who are the credit arrangements, are sent to the Credit Deptt. for their confirmation or cancellation. But before sending to this, their signatures, amounts in words and figures are verified and dates are checked and the clearing stamps of the bank in which they were presented in seen and checked. The clearing stamps bears the date which is to come next date because the cheque are presents next day on the payee bank. In which these cheques are deposited and his signatures are seen there. Then the cheques which have no mistakes are entered in the system. The cheques which have an error i .e. , not having sufficient balance, post dated, out of date, or due to any other reason i.e. the sending or presenting bank may not properly present the cheques, the return slips are made for these cheques and on the slip, the main Branch name, Cheque #, and amount in works and figures in written. Then the entry in the return register is made and the signatures of the authorized persons are affixed on the register and on the return slip. In the register the reason of the cheque is also given and the slip contains number wise reason which are also marked like this (X) then the cheques which are sends Accounts department in the forms of supplies and the treatment with thee cheques is made here. The cheques, which are returned due to any reason, are returned to the presenting bank which returns these to the customers. Above is the procedure of cheques of main branch which are presented in other branches, now I come to the point where the cheques of other branches a presented in our branch. OUTWARD CLEARING: When one of our customers receives cheques of another bank or branch, but does not have any account in that branch. Then he deposits the cheque in his account through a credit slips and receiving the slip and cheques of other person, an entry in the system is made and stamps containing payees account only and clearing stamps bearing the next coming date is affixed on both the slip and on the cheques and, on the back the stamps of authorized person and his initials are made then all thee cheques are presented to another person for slip authenticated and verification it is because the error chances may be made minimum and at the time of closing the cheques are separated form the credit slips and, are attached with the photocopies of the cheques and are kept for banks records.And the cheques are handed over to the SBP through NIFT. And on the next daythe cheques go to their respective banks and if those banks are not satisfied then the cheques are come back and again are entered in the register on which, the bank in which these were drawn and these are presented is written and reason for their return is mentioned and are handed over to the customers by taking their signatures. INWARD CLEARING Signatures are necessary in case if less than 10000 one authentication less than 500,000 double by BOSS more than 500,000 third authentication which is by branch manager. The total of these cheques are entered in the suspense A/C debit the A/C of our customer the amount in the suspense A/C goes on reducing and at the end it shows the zero balance when the returned cheques are also dealt with the returned memos are made for cheques which are to be entered in the registered, date, name of presenting bank, cheques number, account number and amount is written and are signed by person memo is also signed and the total of those is made and the summary is made and these cheques are send to shift office with proper seal. When the inward clearing comes the SBP gives debit to our bank and when the cheques are returned dishonored a credit is given. The reverse is the case with outward clearing. Rs.250/- are received as charges on same day clearing and it is for the cheques of more than or equal to Rs.500,000/- and the cheque must be deposited before 10:00 am. Foreign Currency Department The department which makes the transactions of foreign currency and all related matters which are dealt in local currency. A form named as form M is used to maintain the record of the foreign currency dealt by this department because it is the requirement of SBP on monthly, quarterly, half yearly and on yearly basis. Here is a list of functions and -activities of the department; Functions: Foreign Currency Account Opening Government securities Issuance of Exchange Entry to Daily Exchange Rates Foreign Currency FDR/NDR/NDR-III Activities: Foreign Currency Account Opening: Checking of Documents before Account Opening Dispatching Letter of Thanks to Account Holders Dispatching Letter of Thanks to Introducer Issuance of FCY Cheque Book Recovering Provincial Tax on Cheque Book Issuance Account Closing Government Securities: Issuance: Special U.S. Dollar Bonds Receiving Application Verifying Signature and Checking Balance To Debit the Account Stock Out Entry in Stock Register Preparation of Balance Certificates Delivery to Customer after Affixing Required Stamps Sending Sale Statement to SBP through Karachi Branch Encashment: Special Original Instrument Checking of Instrument Affixing Encashment Stamps Preparing Debit Cash Voucher for Payment to Customer Making Payment from Suspense Account Reversing Suspense Account on Receiving Credit from SBP Issuing Encashment Certificates FEBCs (Foreign Exchange Bearer Certificate): Receiving Original Instrument Checking of Instrument Affixing Encashment Stamps Preparation of Debit Cash Voucher for Payment Making Payment from Suspense Account Deducting Challan Forms Surrendering Tax to SBP Preparing Encashment Reports Reversal of Suspense Entry on Receiving Credit from SBP Issuance of Encashemnt Certificate FCBCs (Foreign Currency Bearer Certificates): Same Steps followed as described above. Special U.S. Dollar Bonds: Preparation of Profit Coupon Affixing Stamps required by SBP Payment of Debit Cash Voucher Preparation of Profit Certificate for SBP Preparation of Profit Payment Report Reversal of Suspense Account on Receiving Credit from SBP Foreign Currency Bearer Certificates: Same Procedure followed as described Supply of Stock: Supply of Stock to Branches Supply of Profit Coupon Books to Branches Foreign Exchange Issuance: Checking of Documents Making Photocopies of ID Card, Ticket Passport Affixing Stamps on Ticket and Passport Obtaining Signature of Customer on TCs Receiving Payment to Debit the Account Delivery to Customer Entry in Stock-out Register Reversing Contra Liability Foreign Currency FDR/NDR/NDRP-III Encashment of FDR/NDR/NDRP-III Quarterly Payment of Profit on NDRP-III CUSTOMER SERVICE DEPARMENT Customer services department is the department which keeps the customer needs fulfilled. Because the customers may feel problems in doing transactions with bank. So the customer service people keeps them aware of the customer needs.Two special posts of CRM and CRO are there and they all time ready to serve the people who come to bank. Personal Bankers are also there who ready to free the customers from their problems.CRM and CRO provides the people facility to know their account balances and to know the comments of the people about the performance of other departments. Special comment forms are used to know the views of the people about the performance of various personals of other departments. Another comment form is used to check the time which is spent on the encashment of a cheque through the cash department. The time starts when the token is received by the customer and ends when the payment is received. Daily 10 such forms are prepared and sent to management to know the efficiency of cash department people. Arrangements are made regarding the availability of written and printed material to the people who come in the bank. Daily reports of the accounts opened with the branch is made and is delivered to branch manager and efforts are made to increase the balance. Frequent meetings are held with Branch Manager to take fresh instructions and to get feed back to the management about the performance of personal bankers. For the service of people there is free offer of local phone calls to the customers. And their problems regarding their balances, Cheque Books, various documents and such other matters. In order to further reinforce our commitment towards priority service to our customers we have decided on the following: CREATION OF A PRIORITY BANKING AREA: The area currently occupied by the CRM, Account opening and personal bankers will be designated as the â€Å"Priority Banking Area†.CRM, Account opening and one priority banker will occupy this area. The Priority Banking Area will be exclusively for Priority Customers who not only hold a substantial amount in terms of deposit with the bank but also demand individual attention. PURPOSE OF PRIORITY BANKING: The basic purpose of priority banking is to provide a valued customer with a pleasant atmosphere in which all his banking requirements are met in the shortest time span possible. WHO IS A PRIORITY CUSTOMER? Individuals who retain an average deposit of 0.5M or above qualify as being a priority customer. However department Heads of various companies who have their corporate accounts with us also qualify. LEVEL OF SERVICE TO BE PROVIDED: As the name depicts the utmost level of priority is to be provided to priority cases. The code for Priority Customers is â€Å"PC† and its notification should ensure the highest level of priority, no matter which department it involves. ROLE OF BOSS, CRM CRO: Initially the CRM along with the Priority Banker are responsible for providing the priority customer with quality service. If another department is involved the Priority Banker will inform the head of the department or Boss with the status of the customer and what is needed. Whoever it is will then help and try to complete the process in the least possible time. RESPONSIBILITIES OF PRIORITY BANKER: Being on the look out for priority customers who enter. Approaching a customer and being the first to initiate a conversation by inquiring about his reason of visit. Handling of Priority Calls. Entertaining the customer with drinks while his visit. Assisting the CRM in his tasks of customer services. Providing the customer with all relevant information regarding his status with the bank. Making sure the Priority Area is clean at all times. Giving each and every customer individual attention. Maintaining a register of all complaints and reporting them to the Branch Manager. Providing the customer with several kinds of reading material to pass his time. Informing a personal banker if a specific client wants to meet him. GENERAL CUSTOMER SERVICE STANDARDS Always be courteous to the customer. Imagine yourself in the customers position and then start to service him the way you would want to be. Give full attention to the person sitting across your table. Do not engage in personal conversation over the phone or with another staff member while dealing with a customer. The job at hand must be dealt with utmost efficiency. If the need to leave a customer arises, explain to him why and return as soon as possible. Atleast one staff member should be present in all the departments at all times, even during lunch hour to accommodate a customer. Talking to a customer or staff member in a loud tone is to be avoided at all costs. If a certain staff member is to be called calling him out loud should be avoided, instead calling at his or at a nearby extension should be done. Be sure of what you are saying. Make sure that you know what you can and what you cant do for a customer. Stick by the commitments you have made to a customer. Give the customer a magazine or newspaper to kill time while he is waiting. Make sure that the customer knows that his work is being taken seriously. Is there such thing as complete synonymy? Is there such thing as complete synonymy? Complete synonymy is rare, and absolute synonymy hardly exists. Lyons (1981:148). Fromkin et al. (2003: 181) state that no two words ever have exactly the same meaning.. These quotations seem odd and unfamiliar to many people in general and I in particular. It is conventionally known that there are many synonyms in the lexicon sharing the same meaning. If a teacher asks one of his students what the opposite of the adjective big is, the student, based on his previous knowledge, will directly answers large. Languages in general- as to speak- have many synonyms, particularly the English language. It is rich in many examples such as plentiful and rich, pretty and attractive, combine and mix, student and pupil, sick and ill, happiness and joy and many others, just to name a few. These words share the same denotation- literal meaning which makes them synonyms and can be used as substitutes for each others to avoid repetition in writing and speaking. As to the complexity of meaning, a perso n looking for replacing a word with another word must choose a precise and accurate synonym. In this regard, many semanticists have presented studies on synonymy from different perspectives. Thus, there is a consensus regarding the difficulty of finding two perfect, absolute or complete words sharing the same synonymy. Semanticists have attacked the translation of words in two different languages as these words cannot mean exactly the same because of the different linguistic and social contexts they occur. But what about two synonyms in the same language?. The rarity or impossibility of perfect synonymy can clearly be discussed through the definition of synonymy, types- scale of synonymy and conditions of perfect synonymy, substitution tests and reasons of rarity. Defining synonymy is a difficult process. Maja, (2009) has argued that when it comes to giving a clear, precise and correct definition of synonymy, many difficulties arise. There are many approaches with many definitions of synonymy and types of synonyms because there are different ways in which synonyms may differ. Maja, (2009) has defined synonymy as the phenomenon of two or more different linguistic forms with the same meaning. Those linguistic forms are called synonyms, e.g. danger and risk can be substituted with one another in certain contexts. Synonymy in semantics is an inter-lexical sense relation. Synonymy is sameness of meaning (Palmer F. R. 1996:88, Lyons John 1996:60). Fromkin et al. (2003:181) has stated that: there are words that sound different but have the same or nearly the same meaning, such words are called synonyms.. John (1995) has also presented a definition indicating that expressions with the same meaning are synonyms. Two important points should be noted abo ut the definition. Firstly, it does not restrict relation of synonymy to lexemes; it allows for the possibility that lexically simple expressions may have the same meaning as lexically complex expressions. Secondly, it makes identity, not merely similarity, of meaning the criterion of synonymy. It is noteworthy that all linguists and semanticists such as Palmer, Lyons and Fromkin agree that synonymy means two words with the same meaning. I completely agree with these definitions from the perspective of sameness. However, I feel that such synonyms may resemble in meaning but they would differ in formality, style, or of some other aspects of connotations. All in all, the definition of synonymy is still a controversial subject among semanticists and difficult to find a specific definition for synonymy. The scale of synonymy is important for all to figure out the relationship between two synonyms. Cruse (2000:157) claims that a scale of synonymy can be established. The scale consists of absolute synonymy, cognitive synonymy and near-synonymy. First, absolute synonymy is set as the complete identity of all meanings of two or more lexemes in all contexts. However, it is unnatural for a language to have absolute synonyms, or lexemes with exactly the same meaning. It is generally accepted that absolute synonymy is impossible or non-existent. It is regarded only as a referential point on the alleged scale of synonymy or the initial criterion for the defining of synonymy (Cruse, 2000, 157). Second, as there are no two lexemes with absolutely the same meaning and no real synonyms, cognitive synonymy is what most semanticists would regard as synonymy. Lyons (1996:63) claims that many theories of semantics would restrict the notion of synonymy to what he calls descriptive or cognitive synony my, which is the identity of descriptive meaning. Third, near-synonyms are lexemes whose meaning is relatively close or more or less similar (mist/fog, stream/brook, dive/plunge). However, the given definition of near-synonymy is vague, because there isnt a precise correlation between synonymy and semantic similarity. Near-synonymy is associated with overlapping of meaning and senses. The senses of near-synonyms overlap to a great degree, but not completely (Murphy, 2003, 155). Moreover, unlike cognitive synonyms, near-synonyms can contrast in certain contexts: He was killed, but I can assure you he was NOT murdered, madam (Cruse, 2000, 159). Near-synonymy is regularly found in dictionaries of synonyms or thesauri where most of the terms listed under a single dictionary entry are not considered to be cognitive synonyms (e.g. govern direct, control, determine, require). The scale presented by Cruse is the most general. There are also other views. Lyons (1981:148) claims that there are absolute synonymy, complete synonymy, descriptive synonymy and near-synonymy. Noticeably, there is a new type compared to Cruse. According to Lyons (1981), complete synonyms must have the identity of all descriptive, social and expressive meaning in all contexts. Since most lexemes are polysemous- have different senses in different contexts, Murphy (2004:146) introduces logical synonyms- which include full synonyms and sense synonyms and near-synonyms. Denotationally equivalent words, whose all senses are identical such as (toilet/john), are called full synonyms, whereas sense synonyms share one or more senses, but differ in others, i.e. they have at least one identical sense (sofa/couch). Near-synonyms, as words with similar senses, are context-dependent. Cognitive synonyms are arguably what Murphy (2003) regards as sense synonyms. At last, there are many types of syn onyms proposed by linguists and semanticists regarding the types of synonymy. By now, it is almost true that absolute synonymy is extremely rare- at least a relation between lexemes- in natural languages. According to John (1995), two or more expressions are perfectly or absolutely anonymous if, and only if, they satisfy three conditions. First, all their meanings are identical. In other words, standard dictionaries of English treat the adjectives big and large as polysemous. For instance, they live in a big/large house. The two words would generally be regarded as synonymous. However, it is easy to show that these adjectives are not synonymous in all their meanings: i.e., that they fail to satisfy condition (1) and so are only partially, not absolutely or perfectly. I will tell my big sister is lexically ambiguous, by virtue of big; in a way that I will tell my large sister is not. All three sentences are well-formed and interpretable. They show that big has at least one meaning which it does not share with large. Second, they are synonymous in all contexts. The main issue here is what we call collocations- a set of contexts where an expression can occur. It might be thought that the collocational range of an expression is wholly determined by its meaning, so that synonyms must of necessity have the same collocational range. But this does not seem to be so. For example, big and large can be used as a good example. There are many contexts in which big cannot be substituted for large (in the meaning which big shares with large) without violating the collocational restrictions of the one or the other. For example, large is not interchangeable with big in: you are making a big mistake. The sentence you are making a large mistake is not only grammatically well-formed, but also meaningful. It is however collocationally unacceptable or unidiomatic. And yet big seems to have the same meaning in you are making a big mistake as it does in phrases such as a big house, for which we could, as we have seen, substitute a large house. It is attempting to argue, in cases like this, that there must be some subtle difference of lexical meaning which accounts for the collocational differences, such that it is not synonymy, but near-synonymy, that is involved. Third, they are semantically equivalent i.e., their meaning or meanings are identical on all dimensions of meaning, descriptive and non-descriptive. The most widely recognized dimension of meaning that is relevant to this condition is descriptive or propositional meaning. I think it is sufficient to say that two expressions have the same descriptive meaning if propositions containing the one necessarily imply otherwise identical propositions containing the other, and vice versa. By this criterion, big and large are descriptively synonymous (in one of their meanings and over a certain range of contexts). For instance, one cannot assert that someone lives in a big house and deny that they live in a large house. Another example is between the words bachelor and unma rried. Some people deny that these two expressions are descriptively synonymous on the grounds that a divorced man who is not married is not a bachelor. As for expressive or socio-expressive meaning, in order to determine that two or more descriptively synonymous expressions differ in respect of the degree or nature of their expressive meaning, it is obvious that a whole set of words including huge, enormous, gigantic and colossal are more expressive of their speakers feelings towards what they are describing than very big or very large, with which they are perhaps descriptively synonymous. It is difficult to compare huge, enormous, gigantic and colossal in terms of their degree of expressivity. But speakers may have clear intuitions about two or more of them. In the end, such conditions must be used to identify whether the two lexemes are synonyms or not and the three conditions have proved that perfect synonyms are not available in any language. Palmer (1981) differentiates between synonyms in terms of dialects, styles, emotive and evaluative values, collocational constraints and overlap of meanings of words. First, some synonyms go with different dialects of the language. For instance, the word movie is used in the United States and film is used in Britain. Second, some synonyms are used in different styles based on formality; colloquial, formal. For instance, depart (formal), go (informal). Third, some words differ only in their emotive or evaluative values but their cognitive meaning is the same. For instance, hide, conceal. Fourth, some words are subject to collocational restraints, i.e. they occur only with specific words. For instance, rancid occurs with butter, addled with eggs. Fifth, the meanings of some words overlap. For instance, mature, adult, ripe. If we take each of these words, we will have a larger set of synonyms. Palmer suggests a substitution test for judging whether two linguistic items are synonyms or n ot. Because perfect synonyms are mutually interchangeable in all contexts, it is rare to find perfect synonyms in a specific language. Anonyms are another way of testing synonymy. For instance, superficial is the opposite of deep and profound, while shallow is the opposite of deep only. Briefly, the true test of synonymy is substitutability: the ability of two words to be substituted for one another without a change in meaning. For instance, the example below contains the verb assist. The research assistant was available to assist patients completing the survey. If help is a synonym of assist, then it should be able to be substituted for assist in the above example without a change in meaning: The research assistant was available to help patients completing the survey. Help and assist can be considered as absolute synonyms, because the two sentences are identical in meaning, at least in the above contexts. Linguists and semanticists have extensively studied synonymy. Consequently, many reasons have been suggested regarding the impossibility of finding perfect synonyms. Firstly, Maja (2009) argued that the function or use of one of the two lexemes would gradually become unnecessary or unmotivated and, as a result, it would soon be abandoned or dropped. Secondly, their interchangeability in all the contexts can neither be demonstrated nor proved, for, on one hand, the number of contexts is infinite, and, on the other hand, the exceptions from absolute interchangeability are inevitable. Therefore, the lexicons of natural languages do not have absolute synonymy. Thirdly, Edmonds and Hirst (2002) also argued that if words were truly synonymous, they would need to be able to be substituted one for the other in any context in which their common sense is denoted with no change to truth value, communicative effect, or à ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒâ€¹Ã…“meaningà ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¢. Fourt hly, each linguistic form is polysemous so that it is difficult to two lexemes sharing whose all meanings are identical in all contexts. In conclusion, there is a consensus among linguists and semanticists about the impossibility of finding two perfect linguistic forms in any language. They have attributed the impossibility to many reasons. Some semanticists tried to simplify the matter of types of synonymy by classifying synonyms based on their own perspectives. Therefore, there are many types suggested by them so that it is difficult to find a specific definition set by them. All studies conducted on synonymy have proved that no perfect synonyms are found in a language.